Daughters of Abrahamic faith: Scriptural narratives on women in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
From the perspective of the Abrahamic traditions, creation is often understood as structured through balance, complementarity, and relational harmony, with duality—particularly the pairing of male and female—serving as a central organising principle of human life. This duality is not framed as opposition but as complementary difference that contributes to the broader harmony of existence. Within this framework, sexuality and the relationship between men and women are seen as natural aspects of human life that sustain renewal, continuity, and social bonds beyond mere biological reproduction. While this general premise of complementarity appears across the Abrahamic faiths, significant differences emerge in how gender relations are interpreted and structured within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Please note that this article refers only to scriptural sources. Let us begin with the Qur’an’s account of the origin of humanity.
The Qur’an rejects the doctrine of original sin; instead, it portrays humanity as entrusted with moral responsibility. Human beings are described as God’s vicegerents (khalifa) on earth, entrusted with stewardship of creation. According to the Qur’an, humanity originates from a single soul, emphasising unity rather than hierarchy. The Qur’anic narrative does not present the creation of woman as implying subordination. Both partners emerge from the same essence and share responsibility for human life. The Qur’an declares: “O humankind! Revere your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single soul, created of like nature its mate, and from them both scattered countless men and women” (4:1), “It is He who created you from a single soul and made from it its mate so that he might dwell with her in tranquility” (7:189).
Equally important is the Qur’anic rejection of inherited guilt. The Qur’an teaches that no individual bears the burden of another’s wrongdoing (35:18, 6:164). The story of the primordial man and woman, popularly known as Adam and Hawaa, portrays both as equally responsible for their actions (20:121). Humanity’s defining characteristic is not inherent sinfulness but forgetfulness (10:12); human beings err and then return to God through repentance.
Within this framework, the Qur’an affirms the spiritual equality of men and women. Moral worth and divine reward depend on faith and righteous action rather than gender. The Qur’an explicitly states: “Whoever does a righteous deed, whether man or woman, and has faith, We shall grant them a good life and reward them according to the best of their actions” (16:97). Another verse reinforces this equality by pairing both genders repeatedly: “For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women… for men and women who remember God much—God has prepared for them forgiveness and a great reward” (33:35).
While affirming spiritual equality, the Qur’an also recognises certain functional differences within social life. For example, it states: “Women have rights similar to those against them according to what is equitable, though men have a degree over them” (2:228).
This “degree” has often been interpreted by classical scholars as referring to specific responsibilities within the family structure rather than intrinsic superiority. Similarly, Qur’an 4:34 describes men as “protectors and maintainers” (qawwamun) of women because they bear financial responsibility for the household. The verse does not say that men are superior to women but are rather their protectors. However, this Qur’an has also generated significant scholarly debate due to its guidance on a husband’s response to a disobedient wife. Traditional interpretations often understand the verse as permitting a husband to discipline his wife physically, while others emphasise conciliatory approaches. Some modern translations, including Ahmed Ali’s, render the verse as suggesting the use of intimacy to restore marital harmony. Scholars continue to debate the verse’s meaning, considering its linguistic nuances, historical context, and broader ethical principles within the Qur’an, highlighting the diversity of perspectives on marital authority and gender relations in Islamic thought.
They are garments for you, and you are garments for them. This metaphor conveys closeness, protection, and mutual comfort.
Marriage occupies a central place in this moral order. In Islam, marriage (niqaḥ) is not a sacrament but a legal and social contract that establishes mutual rights and obligations between spouses. The Qur’an encourages marriage and discourages celibacy, presenting family life as the normative context for human relationships: “Marry the unmarried among you… If they are poor, God will enrich them from His bounty” (24:32). Marriage is therefore regarded as both a social responsibility and a spiritual act. Islamic tradition often describes marriage as completing half of one’s faith because it provides a lawful framework for intimacy, companionship, and moral discipline. Sexuality itself is not considered sinful but rather a natural aspect of human life when expressed within marriage.
The Qur’an describes the marital relationship in intimate and poetic language: “They are garments for you, and you are garments for them” (2:187). This metaphor conveys closeness, protection, and mutual comfort. Another verse describes marriage as rooted in love and mercy: “Among His signs is that He created for you mates from among yourselves so that you may dwell in tranquillity with them, and He placed between you love and mercy” (30:21).
The Qur’an also emphasises the shared moral responsibilities of men and women within society: “The believers, men and women, are guardians of one another: they enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong, establish prayer, and give charity” (9:71). Thus, men and women are portrayed as partners not only in family life but also in the moral life of the community.
Although marriage is strongly encouraged, Islam acknowledges that relationships may break down. Divorce (ṭalaq) is permitted but discouraged. The Qur’an encourages reconciliation through mediation: “If you fear a breach between them, appoint arbiters from his family and hers; if they wish for peace, God will cause their reconciliation” (4:35). Where reconciliation fails, divorce provides a structured means of dissolving the marriage while protecting the rights of both spouses.
The Qur’an addresses gender relations within specific historical and social contexts, including polygamy and legal distinctions in financial and inheritance matters.
Polygamy is permitted under Qur’an 4:3, which allows a man to marry up to four wives—particularly in the context of protecting the property of orphan girls—provided he treats them with justice, while 4:129 acknowledges “you are never able to be fair and just as between women, even if it is your ardent desire.” Many scholars interpret these verses as implicitly discouraging polygamy. Historically, the Prophet of Islam himself was not monogamous, but scholars of Islam argue that his marriages occurred under exceptional circumstances, often as political alliances to strengthen social cohesion, particularly following the boycott imposed by his own tribe. In addition to marital regulations, certain legal distinctions have prompted debates regarding gender equality. In financial contracts, the testimony of two women may be required in place of one man so that if one errs or forgets, the other can provide a corrective reminder (2:282), though the verse does not equate the testimony of one man with that of two women. Similarly, inheritance laws allocate shares unequally, with a male heir receiving twice the portion of a female heir (4:11). These provisions reflect a broader economic framework in which men bear responsibility for family support, while women retain full control over their own wealth, including dower, earnings, and inherited property from parents, spouse, or children. The Qur’an affirms this economic independence by stating: “For men is what they earn, and for women is what they earn” (4:32).
In contrast, the biblical tradition, particularly the Old Testament, presents a theological narrative of creation and gender relations that has profoundly shaped Jewish and Christian understandings of women. In the Book of Genesis, the first woman is created from Adam’s rib. Adam declares, “This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh” (2:23), emphasising both kinship and derivation. While this passage affirms unity between man and woman, the imagery of Eve emerging from Adam has often been interpreted as suggesting a secondary or derivative status.
The narrative continues with the story of the fall in Genesis 3. When confronted by God after eating the forbidden fruit, Adam blames the woman, while Eve explains that the serpent deceived her (3:12–13). Following this act of disobedience, the text describes consequences for both individuals. “God’s curse to the woman—pains in the childbirth, yearning for the husband, who shall rule over her” (3:16). This passage has historically been interpreted as establishing a hierarchical relationship between men and women after the fall.
Later Christian theology developed the doctrine of original sin based on this narrative. In Romans 5:12, the Apostle Paul writes that “sin entered the world through one man, and through sin death.” Humanity inherits the consequences of Adam’s transgression, creating a theological framework in which the entire human race shares a fallen condition.
The Qur’anic narrative does not present the creation of woman as implying subordination; both partners emerge from the same essence.
The Hebrew Bible also includes ritual laws concerning purity. Leviticus 12 outlines purification rules after childbirth, while Leviticus 15 addresses bodily discharges, including menstruation. There are legal regulations reflecting the patriarchal structures of ancient Israelite society. For example, Leviticus 27:1–7 assigns different monetary valuations to men and women when vows are made to God. A man between twenty and sixty years of age is valued at fifty shekels of silver, while a woman of the same age is valued at thirty shekels. It also emphasises sexual morality and family honour. Deuteronomy 22:20–21 prescribes severe punishment if a bride is found not to have been a virgin at marriage.
Likewise, the New Testament presents marriage as a sacred union. In the Bible, Jesus explains the meaning of marriage: “For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh… What God has joined together, let no one separate” (Matthew 19:5–6; Mark 10:5–9).
The writings of the Apostle Paul further elaborate the ethics of marriage within early Christianity. In 1 Corinthians 7:1–3, Paul acknowledges both the value of celibacy and the reality of sexual desire. He advises that each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband, thereby providing a legitimate context for sexual relations.
Paul also introduces a notable idea of reciprocity within marriage. In 1 Corinthians 7:4–5, he writes that the wife does not have authority over her own body, but the husband does, and likewise the husband does not have authority over his own body, but the wife does. This mutuality suggests shared responsibilities within marital intimacy.
At the same time, other passages reflect hierarchical assumptions. In 1 Corinthians 11:3, Paul describes a chain of authority: “Christ is the head of man, man the head of woman, and God the head of Christ.” Instructions concerning husband’s authority and gender hierarchy appear in 1 Corinthians 14:34–35: “As in all churches of the saints, women are to remain quiet at meetings since they have no permission to speak; they must keep in the background as the Law itself lays it down. If they have any questions to ask, they should ask their husbands at home: it does not seem right for a woman to raise her voice at meetings,” and 1 Timothy 2:12–14 states, “I am not giving permission for a woman to teach or to tell a man what to do. A woman ought not to speak, because Adam was formed first and Eve afterwards, and it was not Adam who was led astray but the woman who was led astray and fell into sin.”
Another influential passage appears in Ephesians 5:21–24, where wives are encouraged to submit to their husbands, while husbands are instructed to love their wives as Christ loves the Church. This metaphor connects family relationships to the spiritual relationship between Christ and the Christian community.
Regarding divorce, the Old Testament prohibits it, presenting marriage as a sacred covenant. In the New Testament, Jesus states that a man who divorces his wife and marries another commits adultery against her (Matthew 19:9; Mark 10:11–12; Luke 16:18).
In both the Old and New Testaments, women were generally regarded as subordinate to men and often treated as their property (Exodus 20:17). The Old Testament, however, provides exceptions: in the absence of brothers, a deceased father’s daughters could inherit property, provided they married within their tribe to prevent land from passing between tribes and to preserve the inheritance system (Numbers 27:7; 36:6–9). Although the New Testament generally limits recognition of female agency, it acknowledges exceptions, such as a God-worshiping woman who retained financial independence (Acts 16:14), illustrating the ways some women could exercise influence within religious and social structures.
A comparative analysis of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam highlights both common foundations and notable differences in their approaches to women and gender relations. Each tradition develops its own interpretation, influenced by theological principles, legal frameworks, and historical circumstances. Examining these faiths within their textual and historical contexts provides a more nuanced understanding of how religious teachings have informed—and continue to influence—perspectives on women, family, and social life.
Dr Sarwar Alam is currently an Adjunct Professor of Religious Studies at George Mason University, USA. He can be reached at salam25@gmu.edu.
Send your articles for Slow Reads to slowreads@thedailystar.net. Check out our submission guidelines for details.